Review Article
Open access
Peer reviewed
XEC: The Next Frontier in COVID-19 Evolution and Biotechnological Interventions
- Department of Microbiology, Skyline University, Nigeria
- Department of Biochemistry, Skyline University, Nigeria
- Ministry of National Guard Hospital, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medicinal Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan
- Department of Public Health, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
- Received
- Published
DOI
https://doi.org/10.55006/biolsciences.2025.5401
Citation
Biological Sciences, Vol. 5 No. 4 (2025), 1018-1026
Abstract
The XEC strain of SARS-CoV-2, a recombinant variant, presents significant challenges due to its mutations that enhance immune escape potential and potentially alter transmission dynamics. As the world continues to confront the evolving nature of COVID-19, biotechnological innovations, including genomic surveillance, CRISPR-based diagnostics, and mRNA vaccine platforms, have been essential in responding to emerging variants. However, the XEC variant’s ability to evade immunity requires ongoing adaptation of these technologies, including precision diagnostics and updated vaccines. Despite progress, substantial gaps remain in understanding the pathophysiology of new variants like XEC, their impacts on vulnerable populations, and the efficacy of current therapeutics. Future research should prioritize investigating the molecular mechanisms driving XEC’s pathogenicity, long-term vaccine effectiveness, the development of novel therapeutics, and the integration of biotechnology into public health policies. Furthermore, enhanced international collaboration and data sharing are critical for improving global surveillance and preparedness. Addressing these research gaps through multidisciplinary efforts will be crucial in mitigating the impact of future viral threats and safeguarding global health.
References
- 1. Nájera, R.; Delgado, E.; Pérez-Alvarez, L.; Thomson, M.M. Genetic recombination and its role in the development of the HIV-1 pandemic. AIDS 2002, 16 (Suppl 1), S3–16.
- 2. Datta, P.K.; Liu, F.; Fischer, T.; Rappaport, J.; Qin, X. SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and research gaps: Understanding SARS-CoV-2 interaction with the ACE2 receptor and implications for therapy. Theranostics 2020, 10 (16), 7448–64.
- 3. Cromer, D.; Stein, M.; Reynaldi, A.; Schlub, T.E.; Wheatley, A.K.; Juno, J.A.; Davenport, M.P. Neutralizing antibody titers as predictors of protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants and the impact of boosting: a meta-analysis. Lancet Microbe 2022, 3 (1), e52–61.
- 4. Thakur, S.; Sasi, S.; Pillai, S.G.; Nag, A.; Shukla, D.; Singhal, R.; Velu, G.S.K. SARS-CoV-2 mutations and their impact on diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccines. Front. Med. 2022, 9, 815389.
- 5. Abdulsalam, M.; Musa, I.O.; Livinus, M.U.; Elelu, S.A.; Ibrahim, G.O.; Salami, O.L.; Pal, S.K. Blue bioeconomy and biomedical innovation. In Marine Bioprospecting for Sustainable Blue-bioeconomy; Springer Nature Switzerland: Cham, Switzerland, 2024; pp. 143–57.
- 6. Thomas, S.; Abraham, A.; Baldwin, J.; Piplani, S.; Petrovsky, N. Artificial intelligence in vaccine and drug design. In Vaccine Design: Methods and Protocols, Volume 1: Vaccines for Human Diseases; 2022; pp. 131–46.
- 7. Ou, J.; Zhou, Z.; Dai, R.; Zhang, J.; Zhao, S.; Wu, X.; Zhang, Q. V367F mutation in SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD emerging during the early transmission phase enhances viral infectivity through increased human ACE2 receptor binding affinity. J. Virol. 2021, 95 (16), e01128–21.
- 8. Arnold, B.J.; Huang, I.T.; Hanage, W.P. Horizontal gene transfer and adaptive evolution in bacteria. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2022, 20 (4), 206–18.
- 9. Zabidi, N.Z.; Liew, H.L.; Farouk, I.A.; Puniyamurti, A.; Yip, A.J.W.; Wijesinghe, V.N.; Lal, S.K. Evolution of SARS-CoV-2 variants: implications on immune escape, vaccination, therapeutic and diagnostic strategies. Viruses 2023, 15 (4), 944.
- 10. Telenti, A.; Hodcroft, E.B.; Robertson, D.L. The evolution and biology of SARS-CoV-2 variants. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2022, 12 (5), a041390.
- 11. Abdulsalam, M.; Fatima, Z.Y.U.; Hasiya, U.A.; Ummulkhuthum, A.T.; Aisha, W.N.; Muhammad, F.Y. Deciphering the genetic code: mechanisms, evolution, and implications for biotechnology. World J. Adv. Res. Rev. 2024, 21 (1), 858–68.
- 12. Wang, L.; Nicols, A.; Turtle, L.; Richter, A.; Duncan, C.J.; Dunachie, S.J.; Payne, R.P. T cell immune memory after COVID-19 and vaccination. BMJ Med. 2023, 2 (1), 1–10.
- 13. Simon-Loriere, E.; Montagutelli, X.; Lemoine, F.; Donati, F.; Touret, F.; Bourret, J.; Paquin, A. Rapid characterization of a Delta–Omicron SARS-CoV-2 recombinant detected in Europe. 2022.
- 14. Saheed, Y.K.; Salau-Ibrahim, T.T.; Abdulsalam, M.; Adeniji, I.A.; Balogun, B.F. Modified bi-directional long short-term memory and hyperparameter tuning of supervised machine learning models for cardiovascular heart disease prediction in the mobile cloud environment. Biomed. Signal Process. Control 2024, 94, 106319.
- 15. Shah, M.; Woo, H.G. Omicron: a heavily mutated SARS-CoV-2 variant exhibits stronger binding to ACE2 and potently escapes approved COVID-19 therapeutic antibodies. Front. Immunol. 2022, 12, 830527.
- 16. Jones, T.C.; Biele, G.; Mühlemann, B.; Veith, T.; Schneider, J.; Beheim-Schwarzbach, J.; Drosten, C. Estimating infectiousness throughout SARS-CoV-2 infection course. Science 2021, 373 (6551), eabi5273.
- 17. Sande, M.G.; Rodrigues, J.L.; Ferreira, D.; Silva, C.J.; Rodrigues, L.R. Novel biorecognition elements against pathogens in the design of state-of-the-art diagnostics. Biosensors 2021, 11 (11), 418.
- 18. Triggle, C.R.; Bansal, D.; Ding, H.; Islam, M.M.; Farag, E.A.B.A.; Hadi, H.A.; Sultan, A.A. A comprehensive review of viral characteristics, transmission, pathophysiology, immune response, and management of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 as a basis for controlling the pandemic. Front. Immunol. 2021, 12, 631139.
- 19. Rouf, N.Z.; Biswas, S.; Tarannum, N.; Oishee, L.M.; Muna, M.M. Demystifying mRNA vaccines: an emerging platform at the forefront of cryptic diseases. RNA Biol. 2022, 19 (1), 386–410.
- 20. Guevara, M.L.; Persano, F.; Persano, S. Advances in lipid nanoparticles for mRNA-based cancer immunotherapy. Front. Chem. 2020, 8, 589959.
- 21. Cankat, S.; Demael, M.U.; Swadling, L. In search of a pan-coronavirus vaccine: next-generation vaccine design and immune mechanisms. Cell Mol. Immunol. 2024, 21 (2), 103–18.
- 22. Levin, E.G.; Lustig, Y.; Cohen, C.; Fluss, R.; Indenbaum, V.; Amit, S.; Regev-Yochay, G. Waning immune humoral response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 vaccine over 6 months. N. Engl. J. Med. 2021, 385 (24), e84.
- 23. Ovsyannikova, I.G.; Haralambieva, I.H.; Crooke, S.N.; Poland, G.A.; Kennedy, R.B. The role of host genetics in the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 susceptibility and severity. Immunol. Rev. 2020, 296 (1), 205–19.
- 24. Jiang, Y.; Rubin, L.; Peng, T.; Liu, L.; Xing, X.; Lazarovici, P.; Zheng, W. Cytokine storm in COVID-19: from viral infection to immune responses, diagnosis and therapy. Int. J. Biol. Sci. 2022, 18 (2), 459–70.
- 25. Carethers, J.M. Insights into disparities observed with COVID-19. J. Intern. Med. 2021, 289 (4), 463–73.
- 26. Tregoning, J.S.; Flight, K.E.; Higham, S.L.; Wang, Z.; Pierce, B.F. Progress of the COVID-19 vaccine effort: viruses, vaccines, and variants versus efficacy, effectiveness, and escape. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2021, 21 (10), 626–36.
- 27. Tada, T.; Zhou, H.; Dcosta, B.M.; Samanovic, M.I.; Chivukula, V.; Herati, R.S.; Landau, N.R. Increased resistance of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant to neutralization by vaccine-elicited and therapeutic antibodies. EBioMedicine 2022, 78, 1–8.
- 28. Niklasch, M.; Zimmermann, P.; Nassal, M. The hepatitis B virus nucleocapsid—dynamic compartment for infectious virus production and new antiviral target. Biomedicines 2021, 9 (11), 1577.
- 29. Patel, N.; Trost, J.F.; Guebre-Xabier, M.; Zhou, H.; Norton, J.; Jiang, D.; Smith, G. XBB.1.5 spike protein COVID-19 vaccine induces broadly neutralizing and cellular immune responses against EG.5.1 and emerging XBB variants. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13 (1), 19176.
- 30. Fernandes, Q.; Inchakalody, V.P.; Merhi, M.; Mestiri, S.; Taib, N.; Abo El-Ella, D.M.; Dermime, S. Emerging COVID-19 variants and their impact on SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis, therapeutics and vaccines. Ann. Med. 2022, 54 (1), 524–40.
- 31. Kumaran, A.; Jude Serpes, N.; Gupta, T.; James, A.; Sharma, A.; Kumar, D.; Pandey, S. Advancements in CRISPR-based biosensing for next-gen point of care diagnostic application. Biosensors 2023, 13 (2), 202.
- 32. Mohite, P.; Yadav, V.; Pandhare, R.; Maitra, S.; Saleh, F.M.; Saleem, R.M.; Uti, D.E. Revolutionizing cancer treatment: viral vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and proteolysis-targeting chimeras in immunotherapy. ACS Omega 2024, 9 (7), 7277–95.
- 33. Abdulsalam, M.; Salihu, A.T.; Usman, H.Y.; Usman, M.Y. Protein biosynthesis in microorganisms: mechanisms, regulation, and biotechnological applications. World J. Adv. Res. Rev. 2024, 21 (1), 869–81.
- 34. Saheed, Y.K.; Balogun, B.F.; Odunayo, B.J.; Abdulsalam, M. Microarray gene expression data classification via Wilcoxon sign rank sum and Grey Wolf optimized ensemble learning models. IEEE/ACM Trans. Comput. Biol. Bioinform. 2023, 20 (6), 3575–87.
- 35. Kim, J.H.; Hotez, P.; Batista, C.; Ergonul, O.; Figueroa, J.P.; Gilbert, S.; Bottazzi, M.E. Operation Warp Speed: implications for global vaccine security. Lancet Glob. Health 2021, 9 (7), e1017–25.
Downloads
Most read articles by the same author(s)
- Mustapha Abdulsalam, Aisha Abba Hamisu, Aisha Musa Ahmad, Fatima Balarabe Wakili, Fatima Sulaiman Annu, Maryam Murtala Garba, Microbiome Dynamics and Strategic Management Strategies: Exploring Synergies between Integrative Medicine Modalities and Microbial Balance , Biological Sciences: Vol. 4 No. 3 (2024): Volume 4, Issue 3 (September)
- Halima Ahmad Gwadabe, Shehu-Alimi Elelu, Musa Ojeba Innocent, Ganiyat Omotayo Ibrahim, Ishola Jonathan Adekunle, Mustapha Abdulsalam, Exploring Local-to-Global Win-Win Strategies for Infectious Disease Control: Enhancing Human Health and Sustainability , Biological Sciences: Vol. 5 No. 1 (2025): Volume 5, Issue 1 (March)
- Mustapha Abdulsalam, Mujtaba Amina Ila, Closing the Gap: Artificial Intelligence Integration for Advancing Chikungunya Virus Studies in Africa , Biological Sciences: Vol. 3 No. 4 (2023): Volume 3, Issue 4 (December)
- Aisha Ameera Abdullah, Shehu-Alimi Elelu, Musa Ojeba Innocent, Ganiyat Omotayo Ibrahim, Tijani Abiola Tajudeen, Umar Abdulrasheed, Mustapha Abdulsalam, Advances in Mushroom Chitosan Biorefinery and Its Applications in Food Engineering: A Sustainable Approach to Food Preservation and Quality Enhancement , Biological Sciences: Vol. 5 No. 1 (2025): Volume 5, Issue 1 (March)
- Amina Abdulhamid Ahmed, Ummulkhair Adamu Yusuf, Zainab Hussein Fadlallah, Musa Ojeba Innocent, Mustapha Abdulsalam, Developing an Omics-Driven Computational Framework for Next-Generation Microbiome Therapeutics , Biological Sciences: Vol. 4 No. 4 (2024): Volume 4, Issue 4 (December)
- Mustapha Abdulsalam, Aisha Abba Hamisu, Aisha Musa Ahmad, Fatima Balarabe Wakili, Iman Bala Rabiu, Rukayya Ahmad Burodo, Fatima Bala Bello, Fatima Yusuf Aliyu, Hajara Ali Yanmusa, Nana Aisha Iliyas, Synergies at the Intersection: Exploring the Role of Bioinformatics in Enhancing Physiotherapy and Nursing Practice , Biological Sciences: Vol. 4 No. 3 (2024): Volume 4, Issue 3 (September)
- Ibrahim Abdulrazaq, Shehu-Alimi Elelu, Ganiyat Omotayo Ibrahim, Idowu Afeez Temitope, Abdulsalam Hawau Avoswahi, Abdulkareem Tajuddeen Zakari, Mustapha Abdulsalam, Advancements in Microbial Drug Discovery: Leveraging AI, CRISPR, and Microbiome Insights to Overcome Antimicrobial Resistance , Biological Sciences: Vol. 5 No. 3 (2025): Volume 5, Issue 3 (September)
- Tijani Abiola Tajudeen, Olaitan Lateefat Salam, Idowu Afeez Temitope, Abdulhakeem Idris Abdulhakeem, Ishola Jonathan Adekunle, Musa Ojeba Innocent, Mustapha Abdulsalam, Exploration of Soil Microbiomes as a Source of Novel Antimicrobial Compounds for Combating Drug-Resistant Pathogens , Biological Sciences: Vol. 5 No. 3 (2025): Volume 5, Issue 3 (September)
- Abdulazizu Bala, Shehu-Alimi Elelu, Ganiyat Omotayo Ibrahim, Idowu Afeez Temitope, Miracle Uwa Livinus, Abdullahi Mustapha Yasir, Musa Ojeba Innocent, Mustapha Abdulsalam, Peptide-Based Approaches for Biomolecule Encapsulation, Storage, and Preservation: A Comprehensive Review , Biological Sciences: Vol. 5 No. 2 (2025): Volume 5, Issue 2 (June)
- Mustapha Abdulsalam, Sarah Natour, Iman Bala Rabiu, Muhammed Abdulazeez, Microbial Magic: Decoding the Impact of Hypoxia on Exercise Physiology through Microbiota Dynamics , Biological Sciences: Vol. 4 No. 3 (2024): Volume 4, Issue 3 (September)